A Summary of Durkheims Division of Labor in Society

French philosopher Emile Durkheims book The Division of Labor in Society (or De la Division du Travail Social) debuted in 1893. It was Durkheim’s first major published work, and it is the one in which he introduced the concept of anomie or the breakdown of the influence of social norms on individuals within a society. At the time, The Division of Labor in Society was influential in advancing sociological theories and thought. Major Themes Durkheim discusses how the division of labor—the establishment of specified jobs for specific people—benefits society because it increases the reproductive capacity of a process and the skill set of the workers. It also creates a feeling of solidarity among people who share those jobs. But, Durkheim says, the division of labor goes beyond economic interests: In the process, it also establishes social and moral order within a society. The division of labor can be effectuated only among members of an already constituted society, he argues. To Durkheim, the division of labor is in direct proportion to the moral density of a society. Density can happen in three ways: through an increase of the spatial concentration of peoplethrough the growth of townsthrough an increase in the number and efficacy of the means of communication When one or more of these things happen, says Durkheim, labor begins to become divided, and jobs become more specialized. At the same time, because tasks grow more complex, the struggle for meaningful existence becomes more strenuous. A major theme of the book is the difference between developing and advanced civilizations and how they perceive social solidarity. Another focus is how each type of society defines the role of law in resolving breaches in that social solidarity. Social Solidarity Durkheim argues that two kinds of social solidarity exist: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity connects the individual to society without any intermediary. That is, society is organized collectively and all members of the group share the same set of tasks and core beliefs. What binds the individual to society is what Durkheim calls the collective consciousness, sometimes translated as conscience collective, meaning a shared belief system. With organic solidarity, on the other hand, society is more complex, a system of different functions united by definite relationships. Each individual must have a distinct job or task and a personality that is their own. Here, Durkheim was speaking specifically about men. Of women, the philosopher said: Today, among cultivated people, the woman leads a completely different existence from that of man. One might say that the two great functions of the psychic life are thus dissociated, that one of the sexes takes care of the effective functions and the other of intellectual functions. Framing individuals as men, Durkheim argued that individuality grows as parts of society grow more complex. Thus, society becomes more efficient at moving in sync, yet at the same time, each of its parts has more movements that are distinctly individual. According to Durkheim, the more primitive a society is, the more it is characterized by mechanical solidarity. The members of an agrarian society, for example, are more likely to resemble each other and share the same beliefs and morals. As societies become more advanced and civilized, the individual members of those societies become more distinguishable from one another. People are managers or laborers, philosophers or farmers. Solidarity becomes more organic as those societies develop their divisions of labor. The Role of Law For Durkheim, the laws of a society are the most visible symbol of social solidarity and the organization of social life in its most precise and stable form. Law plays a part in a society that is analogous to the nervous system in organisms. The nervous system regulates various bodily functions so they work together in harmony. Likewise, the legal system regulates all the parts of society so that they work together in agreement. Two types of law are present in human societies and each corresponds to the type of social solidarity those societies use: repressive law and restitutive law. Repressive law corresponds to the center of common consciousness and everyone participates in judging and punishing the perpetrator. The severity of a crime is not measured necessarily as the damage incurred to an individual victim, but rather gauged as the damage it caused the society or the social order as a whole. Punishments for crimes against the collective are typically harsh. Repressive law, says Durkheim, is practiced in mechanical forms of society. Restitutive Law as Restoration The second type of law is restitutive law, which instead focuses on the victim since there are no commonly shared beliefs about what damages society. Restitutive law corresponds to the organic state of society and works through the more specialized bodies of society, such as the courts and lawyers. This also means that repressive law and restitutory law vary directly with the degree of a society’s development. Durkheim believed that repressive law is common in primitive, or mechanical, societies where sanctions for crimes are typically made and agreed upon by the whole community. In these lower societies, crimes against the individual do occur, but in terms of seriousness, those are placed on the lower end of the penal ladder. Crimes against the community take priority in such societies, according to Durkheim, because the evolution of the collective conscious is widespread and strong while the division of labor has not yet happened. The more a society becomes civilized and the division of labor is introduced, the more restitutory law takes place. Historical Context Durkheim wrote his book at the height of the industrial age. How people fit into Frances new social order surfaced as a principal source of trouble for the rapidly industrial society. The pre-industrial social groups comprised family and neighbors, but as the Industrial Revolution continued, people found new cohorts at their jobs, creating new social groups with co-workers. Dividing society into small labor-defined groups, says Durkheim, required an increasingly centralized authority to regulate relations between the different groups. As a visible extension of that state, law codes needed to evolve as well, to maintain the orderly operation of social relations by conciliation and civil law rather than by penal sanctions. Durkheim based his discussion of organic solidarity on a dispute he had with Herbert Spencer, who claimed that industrial solidarity is spontaneous and that there is no need for a coercive body to create or maintain it. Spencer believed that social harmony is simply established by itself, an idea with which Durkheim disagreed. Much of this book, then, involves Durkheim arguing with Spencer’s stance and pleading his own views on the topic. Criticism Durkheims primary objective was to evaluate the social changes related to industrialization and to better understand its ills. But British legal philosopher Michael Clarke argues that Durkheim fell short by lumping a variety of societies into two groups: industrialized and non-industrialized. Durkheim didnt see or acknowledge the wide range of non-industrialized societies, instead imagining industrialization as the historical watershed that separated goats from sheep. American scholar Eliot Freidson pointed out that theories about industrialization tend to define labor in terms of the material world of technology and production. Freidson says that such divisions are created by an administrative authority without consideration of the social interaction of its participants. American sociologist Robert Merton noted that as a positivist, Durkheim adopted the methods and criteria of the physical sciences to examine the social laws that arose during industrialization. But physical sciences, rooted in nature, simply cant explain the laws that have arisen from mechanization. The Division of Labor also has a gender problem, according to American sociologist Jennifer Lehman. She argues that Durkheims book contains sexist contradictions. Durkheim conceptualizes individuals as men but women as separate and nonsocial beings. By using this framework, the philosopher entirely missed out on the role of women have played in both industrial and pre-industrial societies. Sources Clarke, Michael. Durkheims Sociology of Law. British Journal of Law and Society Vol. 3, No. 2., Cardiff University,1976, Cardiff, Wales. Durkheim, Emile. On the Division of Labor in Society. Trans. Simpson, George. The MacMillan Company, 1933. New York.Freidson, Eliot. The Division of Labor as Social Interaction. Social Problems, Vol. 23 No. 3, Oxford University Press, 1976, Oxford, U.K.Gehlke, C. E. Reviewed Work: of  On the Division of Labor in Society, Emile Durkheim, George Simpson Columbia Law Review, 1935, New York.Jones, Robert Alun. Ambivalent Cartesians: Durkheim, Montesquieu, and Method. American Journal of Sociology, 1994, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Kemper, Theodore D. The Division of Labor: A Post–Durkheimian Analytical View. American Sociological Review, 1972, American Sociological Association, Washington, D.C.Lehmann, Jennifer M. Durkheims Theories of Deviance and Suicide: A Feminist Reconsideration. American Journal of Sociology, University of Chicag o Press, 1995, Chicago.Merton, Robert K. Durkheims Division of Labor in Society. American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 40, No. 3, University of Chicago Press, 1934, Chicago.

Global Warming Our Future On A Hotter Planet - 1855 Words

Over the past half century, global warming rates have increased by an unprecedented amount. As the earth’s changing climate becomes a pertinent issue for nature and human society, climate scientists continue to make predictions about how rising temperatures will affect the whole planet in the future. Notably, environmental activist Mark Lynas examines aspects of global warming, like rising sea levels, natural disasters, and overall temperature changes in his book â€Å"Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet.† Lynas takes into account â€Å"state of the art research† to assess the degree by degree forecast for the 21st century. While Lynas and climate scientists agree that global warming is underway, Lynas tends to be overstated in his†¦show more content†¦The impact of this warm period is seen in the increase in â€Å"warm days† and decrease in â€Å"cold days† throughout the year (IPCC). In addition, a major contributor to global warmi ng is the release of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide. One prediction forecasts the rise in temperatures from 1990 to 2100 to be between 1.7 and 4.9 degrees â€Å"in the absence of climate mitigation policies (Sciencemag).† Although very high, these figures indicate that global warming is concerning to climate scientists, and should be viewed as a prevailing problem by all humans. Evidence of global warming’s intensifying effects is seen in Africa, where the spread of disease is becoming uncontrollable. Although Lynas’ predictions are generally too severe, and cannot be proven by the earth’s current physical state, he was correct in his claims that global warming is influencing the rate of disease transmission. As a result of increasing temperatures, the spread of harmful diseases in Africa is constantly being exacerbated. Lynas argues that the wet and warm conditions brought by a combination of increased temperatures, and higher rates of rainfall an d flooding, will allow bacteria causing diseases like malaria and dengue fever to thrive. As a result, these floods will carry the deadly diseases over longer distances, allowing them to impact a wider range of populations, both human and livestock. As of 2015, Lynas’ predictions do not seem to be overstated. With temperatures

Rubin The Hurricane Carter Essay Example For Students

Rubin The Hurricane Carter Essay Rubin Hurricane Carter The movie that was analyzed was The Hurricane starring Denzel Washington. The movie was based on a true story, which was about a boxer who was wrongfully accused for murders he did not commit. Rubin Carter had been a victim of racial prejudice since the age of 11. From that time on he had been haunted by the racial prejudice that would take most of his natural life away from him. At the age of fifty he ended up going to the Supreme courts to get his trial heard and at this time he was set free. This is a short summary leaving a lot to be unsaid, but I believe the portrayal will tell most of the story in itself. In the beginning of the movie one can tell that the less developed, or slums, was where Rubin Carter was forced to grow up. This is an example of minority group status and stratification. This society was one where African Americans did not have access to wealth, power, prestige, or income. With this type of environment forces these African Americans to be more prone to violence and criminal acts. So as a kid Rubin was involved with a crime where an older white male came up to him and his friends down by the local river. This male was trying to molest one of the little boys, so Rubin threw a bottle at him and they ran. The man caught up to them and got a hold of Rubin and threatened to throw him over the edge of a cliff, so Rubin at age 11 pulled a knife and stabbed him in the arm to get away. The police caught him and since the older man was a public figure, Rubin Carter was sentenced to a juvenile detention center until the age of thirteen. This was the first time that we seen the racial prejudice from the head police chief towards Carter. The next principle that was expressed in this movie was pure discrimination. While Carter was in his confinement he used his anger to become a professional boxer. When he was released he pursued this and done well enough to get a title fight. In this title fight he beat this guy in every aspect of boxing, but the judges who were all white ruled unanimously in the favor of the other guy. They were afraid to take the title way from a white male and give it to a black man. This is where we started to see Rubins attitude toward the white person change, he started expressing his feelings to people but playing them off like he was joking. You could say that he was becoming prejudice himself. Because he was expressing these feelings and it was getting into the press accidentally, Rubin started having more people vandalizing his house and harassing him because he was talking about how he hated the nigger hating cops. The racist police officer had it set in his mind that Rubin Carter was a menace to society and he was going to do everything in his power to take him down. These things that Rubin was saying even made the cop want to put him away more. So the first chance he could get something on him he would. So it happened and the cop tried to pin a murder on Rubin Carter and another black man that was with him at the time of the murder. There was an instance that we saw an instance of stereotyping by other cops in that district. When they were out looking for the murderers they were told to look for two black men in a white car. .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 , .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .postImageUrl , .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 , .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:hover , .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:visited , .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:active { border:0!important; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:active , .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9 .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf19617a5f638939bfebf85b4d857b5a9:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Philosophy Of Jeremy Bentham Essay When Carter was approached in his car he was told by the police that they were looking for two black men in a white car, Rubin replied with any two will do? Another stereotyping incident that was pinned on Rubin was during the trial they used the evidence that the killings were racially motivated. They thought that since Rubin expressed his opinion of the cops publicly he would attack the whites by charging into an institutionally discriminatory bar and kill the people .

The Economic Environment of the UAE

Introduction The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is currently experiencing a positive economic growth. The UAE has â€Å"an economic freedom score of 71.4† (Young, 2014, p. 8). This fact makes the UAE has become one of the freest markets in the globe. The region’s economy has been showing new improvements.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on The Economic Environment of the UAE specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The UAE region has been using powerful incentives in order to support its economic position. According to Young (2014, p. 19), â€Å"the UAE’s economy is the second largest in the Middle East†. The region’s GDP stands at 377 trillion US dollars. The region is currently diversifying its economy. However, the government obtains over 30 percent of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from oil. This essay examines the opportunities and challenges associated with the region’s eco nomy. The Economic Environment of UAE The economic environment of a region will determine its performance. Many people will invest in every country with a positive economic environment. The economic indicators of the UAE are making the region admirable. Dubai is one of the monarchies forming the United Arab Emirates. Dubai has become the center of commerce and tourism (Young, 2014). The UAE also offers new incentives to ensure every person achieve his or her goals. For example, the UAE has formed many free trade zones. Such zones encourage many investors to support their business activities. These regions have â€Å"zero taxation thus supporting the goals of many entrepreneurs† (Hill, 2011, p. 12). The UAE offers subsidized services to its people. Many individuals are currently experiencing the best opportunities. The region also exports oil and gas. This economic activity has increased the government’s revenues. The UAE government uses such revenues to support small-s cale businesses. The UAE produces â€Å"the best opportunities thus making the region attractive to both local and foreign investors† (Young, 2014, p. 65). This situation explains why many investors are doing business in the UAE.  The legal aspects of the UAE continue to support its economy. For instance, the region is not corrupt (Jones, 2005).Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The monarchies promote the best judicial practices. The political leadership of the region discourages many business malpractices. This practice is currently promoting the economy of the region. There is â€Å"no income tax in the UAE† (Young, 2014, p. 48). This economic situation makes it easier for many individuals to achieve their potentials. The region uses most of its revenues to promote the best economic activities. The UAE has streamlined most of its business policies. For e xample, many people can start their businesses within ten days. The process is also â€Å"efficient and less costly† (Young, 2014, p. 65). The government supports the best employment regulations. The practice has made it easier for many investors to achieve their goals. Many individuals have managed to launch their businesses within the shortest time possible. Employment laws and regulations are also flexible in the UAE. The presence of open markets makes the UAE admirable to many investors. The â€Å"United Arab Emirates presents an average tariff of 3.7 percent† (Hill, 2011, p. 73). According to many economists, non-tariff issues do not discourage many people from investing in UAE. Many foreign investors are able to own property in the region. This practice has made it easier for them to achieve their goals. Islamic banking â€Å"is also common thus promoting the economic expectations of many entrepreneurs† (Young, 2014, p. 69). The presence of state-owned ban ks has made it easier for the region to achieve its goals. It is agreeable that the UAE economy presents a wide range of opportunities. The above strengths will â€Å"encourage more investors to focus on the region† (Young, 2014, p. 72). On the other hand, the economy of the United Arab Emirates faces a number of weaknesses. Such threats have discouraged many individuals from doing business in the region (Young, 2014). To begin with, the region’s income is obtained from gas and oil. The government should therefore diversity its economy in order to achieve the best outcomes. The government can identify new sources of income such as agriculture and tourism. Many foreigners are â€Å"only allowed to own land and property in specific areas† (Hill, 2011, p. 102). This issue discourages many investors from doing business in the UAE. The UAE government should use the best strategies in order to support the needs of these investors. This practice will make the region on e of the best business destinations.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on The Economic Environment of the UAE specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The issue of terrorism is a common problem in the United Arab Emirates. The Arab World (AW) is currently associated radicalism. Many Muslims have â€Å"been controlling different functions and policies† (Young, 2014, p. 89). Many â€Å"people have been avoiding the region because terrorism is a real challenge† (Young, 2014, p. 173). This problem discourages many people from visiting the UAE. The UAE is also associated with an unpleasant climate. This situation has made it impossible for many individuals to do business in the region. Conclusion The United Arab Emirates has a powerful economy. The region is currently diversifying its economic activities n order to become a major player in the globe. The region also obtains its income from different non-oil sec tors (Jones, 2005). The legal frameworks experienced in the UAE are supporting many businesses. This discussion encourages the UAE government to address the major threats affecting its economy. The practice will eventually support UAE’s economy. Reference List Hill, C. (2011). International Business, Competing in the Global Market. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Jones, G. (2005). Multinationals and Global Capitalism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Young, K. (2014). The Political Economy of Energy, Finance and Security in the United Arab Emirates. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This assessment on The Economic Environment of the UAE was written and submitted by user Eli W. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.